Cantonese is an analytic language where, in a sentence, the arrangement of words is important to its meaning. A basic sentence is in form of SVO, i.e. a subject is followed by a verb then by an object, though this order is often violated because Cantonese is a Topic-prominent language. Unlike synthetic languages, seldom do words indicate time, gender and plural by inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and particles, or are deduced from the context. Different particles are added to a sentence to further specify its status or intonation.
A verb itself indicates no tense. The time can be explicitly shown with time-indicating adverbs. Certain exceptions exist, however, according to the pragmatic interpretation of a verb's meaning. Additionally, an optional aspect particle can be appended to a verb to indicate the state of an event. Appending interrogative or exclamative particles to a sentence turns a sentence into a question or shows the attitudes of the speaker.
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In contrast to many European languages, Cantonese verbs are marked for aspect rather than tense - that is, whether an event has begun, is ongoing, or has been completed. Tense - where an event occurs within time, ie past, present, future - is specified through the use of time adverbs. In addition, verbal complements may convey aspectual distinctions, indicating whether an event is just beginning, is continuing, or at completion, and also the effect of the verb on its object(s).
Aspect particles are treated as suffixes bound to the verb.
Aspect | Marker | Usage | Example |
---|---|---|---|
Perfective | zo2 (咗) | To emphasise a completed activity the result of which still applies to the present situation | 我I 喺at/in 香港Hong Kong 住咗live-PERF 一one 年year = I have lived in Hong Kong for a year (and still live here) |
Experiential | gwo3 (過) | To emphasise an activity completed in the indeterminate past which no longer applies to the present situation | 我I 喺at/in 香港Hong Kong 住過live-EXPR 一one 年year = I lived in Hong Kong for a year (but am now elsewhere) |
Progressive | gan2 (緊) | To emphasise a dynamic activity which may undergo a change of state | 我I 著緊wear-PROG 衫clothes = I am putting on clothes |
Durative | zyu6 (住) | To emphasise a continuous activity without a change of state | 我I 著住wear-DUR 衫clothes = I am wearing clothes |
Delimitative | haa5 (吓) | To emphasise an activity of brief duration | 等Let 我me 著吓wear-DEL = Let me wear it for a while |
Habitual | hoi1 (開) | To emphasise an activity protracted over a period of time to the point that it has become characteristic or habitual | 我I 做開do-HAB 鐘點part-time 嘅SFP = I normally work part time |
Inchoative | hei2-soeng5-lai4 (起上嚟) | To emphasise the beginning of an activity | 個CL BBbaby 突然之間suddenly 喊起上嚟cry-INCH = the baby suddenly began crying |
Continuative | lok6-heoi3 (落去) | To emphasise the continuation of an activity | 你you唔NEG 使need 再again 講落去speak-CONT 喇SFP = You don't have to go on speaking |
Abbreviations: CL = classifier; SFP = sentence-final particle
Cantonese has many final particles to change the moods or sometimes even the meaning of an utterance. There are also many combinations of these final particles.
Particle | Jyutping | Usage | Example |
---|---|---|---|
呀 | aa3 | Used in neutral questions. Also used to soften the tone of affirmative statements so they don't sound as abrupt. | 你去邊處呀? Where are you going? 我返屋企呀 I'm going home. |
嘅 | ge3 | Used in assertions where something is emphasized (usually 係 hai6 is in front of what is being emphasized). Pronouncing it as ge2 adds a sense of puzzlement about the situation. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese 的 dik1. | 我係今日返屋企嘅 I'm going home today. (the "today" is emphasized) |
㗎 | gaa3 | Contraction of the combination 嘅呀 ge3 aa3. | 你係幾時返來㗎? When are you coming back? (the "when" is emphasized) |
喇 | laa1 | Used in requests and imperatives. This is one particle where leaving it out could make the sentence sound rude. This is equivalent to the Mandarin/written Chinese sentence final 吧 baa6. | 返來喇 Come back [please]. |
囉 | lo1 | Indicates a suggestion or conclusion that should be obvious (usually occurs with 咪 mai6). | 我冇車咪返唔到屋企囉 Without a car, [then of course] I am unable to go home. |
啫 | ze1 | Can be used to mean "only" or "that's all," or used to play down the significance of the situation. | 佢返一日啫 He's only coming back for one day. |
There are more final particles than those shown above, such as 嘞laak3, 囉lo1, 咯lo3, 吓ha2, 呵ho2, 吖aa4, 㗎gaa4, 喎wo5, 啩gwaa3, 噃bo3, 喎wo3 and 咩me1.
Final particles may sometimes combine to convey multiple moods. There are unwritten rules about which particles can be combined and in what order they occur which are probably too complicated to explain here. However, one good rule of thumb is that 嘅 ge3 always comes before the other particles. In addition, the particles used in questions (呀 aa3, 咩 me1, 呢 ne1, 嗎 maa3, etc.) always come last.
Cantonese uses the following pronouns, which like in many other Sinitic languages, function as both subjective (English: I, he, we) and objective (me, him, us):
Pronoun | Pronunciation (in Jyutping) | Grammatical Classification | English equivalent |
---|---|---|---|
我 | ngo5 | 1st person singular | I / me |
你 | nei5 | 2nd person singular | you |
佢 | keoi5 | 3rd person singular | He / she |
我哋 | ngo5 dei6 | 1st person plural | We / us |
你哋 | nei5 dei6 | 2nd person plural | You (all) |
佢哋 | keoi5 dei6 | 3rd person plural | They / Them |
States and qualities are generally expressed using stative verbs that do not require the verb "to be". For example, to say "I am hungry", one would say 我肚餓 (ngo5 tou5 ngo6) (literally: I stomach hungry).
With noun complements, the verb 係 hai6 serves as the verb "to be".
Another use of 係 is in cleft constructions for emphasis, much like the English construction "It's ... that ...". The sentence particle 嘅 ge3 if often found along with it.
To indicate location, the words 喺 hai2 and 响 hoeng2, which are collectively known as the locatives or sometimes coverbs in Chinese linguistics, are used to express "to be at":
(Here 依家 ji4 gaa1 means "now".)
Many negation words start with the sound m- in Cantonese; for example, 唔 m4 (not), 冇 mou5 (not have), 未 mei6 (not yet). Verbs are negated by adding the character 唔 m4 in front of it. For example:
becomes:
The exception is the word 有 jau5 (to have), which turns into 冇 mou5 (don't have) without the use of 唔.
The negative imperative is formed by prefixing 唔好 m4 hou2 or 咪 mai5 in front of the verb:
In contrast to the examples of sentential negation above where the entire sentence is negated, 唔 can also be used lexically to negate a single word. The negated word often differs slightly in meaning from the original word; that is, this lexcial negation is a kind of derivation. Evidence for this is that they can be used with the perfective aspect particle 咗 zo2, which is not possible with sententially negated verbs.
is perfectly acceptable, but
is ungrammatical. (The correct expression should be "我未食嘢" "我(I)未(not yet)食(eat)嘢(something/anything)")
Questions are not formed by changing the word order as in English. Sentence final particles and certain interrogative constructions are used instead.
There are two ways to form a yes-no questions. One way is by the use of final particle and/or intonation alone. The question particle 呀 a4 indicates surprise or disapproval. It tends to presuppose a positive answer.
The particle 咩 me1 is exclusively interrogative, indicating surprise and used to check the truth of an unexpected state of affairs.
A question may be indicated by a high rising intonation alone at the end of a question. (This intonation can be considered a nonsyllablic final particle indicating a question.) This intonation pattern usually modifies or exaggerates the basic tone of the last syllable. This type of question is used especially for echo, where the questioner repeats a statement out of surprise.
The other way to form yes-no questions uses a special construction in which the head of the predicate, say X, is replaced by X-not-X. Final particles may be used in addition.
你 | 識 | 講 | 廣東話. | --> | 你 | 識唔識 | 講 | 廣東話? | ||
Transcription: | nei5 | sik1 | gong2 | Gwong2dung1waa2 | nei5 | sik1 m4-sik1 | gong2 | Gwong2dung1waa2 | ||
Gloss: | you | know | speak | Cantonese | you | know not-know | speak | Cantonese | ||
Translation: | You know how to speak Cantonese. | Do you know know to speak Cantonese? |
有 | 紅綠燈. | --> | 有冇 | 紅綠燈? | |
Transcription: | jau5 | hung4luk6dang1 | -> | jau5mou5 | hung4luk6dang1 |
Gloss: | have | red-green-light | have not-have | red-green-light | |
Translation: | There is a traffic light. | Is there a traffic light? |
佢 | 係 | 加拿大人. | --> | 佢 | 係咪 | 加拿大人? | |
Transcription: | keoi5 | hai6 | ga1na4dai6-jan4 | keoi5 | hai6-mai6 | ga1na4dai6-jan4 | |
Gloss: | (s)he | is | Canada-man | (s)he | is isn't | Canada-man | |
Translation: | (S)he is a Canadian. | Is (s)he a Canadian? |
你 | 鍾意 | 年糕. | --> | 你 | 鍾唔鍾意 | 年糕? | |
Transcription: | nei5 | zung1ji3 | nin4gou1 | nei5 | zung1-m4-zung1ji3 | nin4gou1 | |
Gloss: | you | like | year-cake | you | like not-like | year-cake | |
Translation: | You like new-year cake. | Do you like new-year cake? |
你 | 去過 | 德國. | --> | 你 | 去過 | 德國 | 未? | (the word 去過 after 未 is omitted to avoid repetition.) | |
Transcription: | nei5 | heoi3gwo3 | Dak1gwok3 | nei5 | heoi3gwo3 | Dak1gwok3 | mei6*2 | (tone changes to indicate a question.) | |
Gloss: | you | go-EXPR | Germany | you | go-EXPR | Garmany | not-yet | ||
Translation: | You have ever been to Germany. | Have you ever been to Germany? |
This form of yes-no questions looks less similar to the "X-not-X" type, but it is still considered in this type, because the "X" after "not" is omitted. For example, the example question above can be expanded as 你去過德國未去過?.
A syntax of yes-no question in the form "X-not-X" is actually a contraction of a combination of syntax of an affirmative sentence and the syntax of a negative sentence.
Interrogative | Pronunciation | English equivalent |
---|---|---|
邊個 | bin1 go3 | who |
乜(嘢) / 咩 | mat1 (je5) / me1 | what |
邊度 / 邊處 | bin1 dou6 / bin1 syu3 | where |
幾時 | gei2 si4 | when |
點解 | dim2 gaai2 | why |
點(樣) | dim2 (joeng6*2) | How |
幾多 | gei2 do1 | How many/much |
Questions use exactly the same word order as in statements. For example: 你係邊個? (who are you?, literally "you are who"), 你幾時去個度見邊個呀? (when did you go there and who did you meet?, literally "you when go there meet who")
The proximal demonstrative ("this"), is 呢 ni1 / nei1, or more frequently in fast speech, 依 ji1 (+ measure word). For example:
The distal demonstrative ("that") is 嗰 go2. For example:
Between the demonstrative and its noun, a certain word to link them must be used, whether the particle 嘅 ge3 or a corresponding classifier for the noun for singular count nouns (嘅 ge3 being more formal than using a classifier); or 啲 di1 for plural count nouns and mass nouns:
N.B.: 啲 is a very versatile word in Cantonese, besides pluralizing certain phrases, it can also mean "a little/few", e.g. 一啲 jat1 di1 (a little), or 早啲 earlier (literally: early + (intensifier)).
However, in the case where there's an implied plural noun, one does not say:
For example:
嘅呀 ge3 aa3 is usually shortened in speech into one syllable, 嘎/㗎 gaa3.
Both of these are generic possessives.
The following Cantonese grammatical points are not found in Mandarin Chinese.